This guide is meant to help you in writing high quality academic papers. Most
of what is discussed here will be applicable to your course. However, always
contact your instructor to make sure that he or she does not have other requirements.
When and how do I refer to literature sources
In general, we can distinguish the following situations:
A fact is common knowledge, applicable over a large time frame, e.g. “a
chair has four legs” (although some haven’t actually). No reference
is needed.
A fact is common knowledge over a more limited time frame, e.g. “Labour
won the recent Victorian State election and returned to power”. No reference
would be needed for papers written NOW. However, if you wrote a paper in ten
years’ time and analysed different periods in the Victorian political
system, a reference would be necessary.
Factual information that cannot be considered to be common knowledge, e.g. “the
level of unionisation in France is 12%”, needs a reference.
A statement such as “globalisation leads to a convergence of cultures” would
need to be backed up by at least one of the following: (1) a solid explanation
of your own, (2) references to (academic) authors who argue this link, (3)
references to (academic) authors who report on research proving this relationship,
and (4) a report on your own research in this area (e.g in the case of a masters
thesis). At the very least you should indicate whether certain statements are
your own opinion, based on the writings of others or a combination of both.
Newspaper and magazine (as opposed to journal) articles can be used to illustrate
certain issues. Solid evidence, however, cannot be based on newspaper or magazine
articles alone. Also, textbook information can be useful, but can never be
the only basis for an academic paper.
Although many students might appreciate the need to back up the statement
in (4), this is also necessary for statements such as: “the welfare state
leads to a lack of entrepreneurial activity”. Although there might be
some “factual” truth in this statement, writing it down like this
is an overly generalised and unnuanced statement. Your task is to write
papers that contain a well-motivated and nuanced view on certain issues
and to analyse a situation from various perspectives. It is not to give one
clear-cut answer to a complex problem. (You can leave that to management consultants
and politicians.)
In addition the following issues are important to consider:
If you refer to the work of authors you have found in other publications
(e.g. Hofstede 19.. in Harzing 2001b), without reading or checking the
actual publication itself, do not pretend to have read it. In the text
refer to: Hofstede, 19.. in Harzing, 2001b. However, you should include the
Hofstede publication in the list of references. In more substantial works (e.g.
a master’s
thesis) you should make it a habit to track down these references yourself,
especially if they are important for your story. The other author may
have misinterpreted the original work or its con-clusions might have
been taken out of context. [see Harzing (2002): Are our
referencing errors undermining our scholarship and credibility? The case of
expatriate failure rates, Journal of Organizational
Behavior, vol. 23/1, pp. 127-148, for some
striking examples.]
There is only one situation in which you can literally copy a
limited amount of text from other sources (typically a few lines
to, at most, a few paragraphs) and this is when you cite the author
in question, using quotation marks and mentioning the exact source
(e.g. Harzing, 2001b, page 585). Of course you can only use citations
sparingly. Your paper should not consist of a simple list of quotes,
connected by some sentences written by yourself. If you do not copy text from
other sources literally, but use the ideas put forward by someone
else, you will have to include a reference. In that case you do not
necessarily have to include the page number (but you can if you want
to). If you copy either literal text or ideas from someone else without
proper referencing, you are committing plagiarism, which will be
punished according to university guidelines.
Don’t worry if you sometimes have difficulty in deciding when and
where to use references, it is not one of the easiest things to do in
academic writing. Do, however, pay attention to referencing in future papers
and in articles you read for your subjects. The only way you can get a feel
for this is by practising this process a lot.
How do I set up my list of references
A substantial number of students submit coursework with an incorrect or incomplete
list of references. It is absolutely foolish to make mistakes in this respect
because there are only a few basic, very simple rules:
Include all books/articles you refer to in the list of references.
Put the references in alphabetical order.
Use a standard recognised system. One common method references publications
thus:
Refer to a book like this: Harzing, A.W.K.; Van Ruysseveldt, J. (eds.)
(1995) International Human Resource Management, London: Sage
Publications.
Refer to an article like this: Harzing, A.W.K (1997) Research
Note: About the paucity of empirical research in IHRM: A test
of Downes framework of staffing foreign subsidiaries, Journal
of International Management, Vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 153-167.
Refer to a contribution in an edited book like this: Harzing, A.W.K.;
Hofstede, G. (1996) Planned change in organizations:
the influence of national culture, in: Bamberger, P.A., Erez, M.; Bacharach,
S.B., Research in the Sociology of Organizations: Cross-Cultural
Analysis of Organisations, Greenwich: JAI Press, pp. 297-340.
You can also use underline instead of italics, but do make sure you emphasise
the journal title and not the title of the article in (b) and do not forget
the pages in (b) and (c). References should enable other people to track
down your sources easily. This becomes more difficult if you forget the page
numbers, but it becomes impossible if you do not even mention the journal.
Grammar and spelling
A lot of the coursework I have received over the years includes many typing & spelling
errors and weak grammar. Unfortunately, it is not just non-native speakers who
are guilty of this. Many of these issues can be solved so easily that making
a lot of mistakes is really unforgivable. A couple of years ago, one student
forgot a key word in her conclusion (“not”) and was hence completely
negating the whole argument of her paper. Many other students forget words in
a sentence or letters in a word or seem to think it is a good idea to occasionally
use capitals in the middle of a sentence (you are writing English, not German!)
or not use a capital letter at the beginning of a sentence. Submitting a paper
in this form doesn’t show great respect for the reader. This is what you
can do to avoid mistakes:
First of all, READ your paper before you hand it
in. Many of these issues are simply caused by haste.
Second, if you
use a word processor (and who doesn't?) then set the options so that
the word processor corrects your spelling and grammar, even while you
are typing (Tools > Options > Spelling and Grammar)!
You
can even let the word-processor check jargon, clichés, wordiness and
spaces between sentences. Learning to use word processing programmes effectively
is also a key skill you are expected to have mastered by the end of your
course (ideally at the beginning!).
